Endnotes

1  The Commission initially requested written comment on a proposal that discussed how it would apply its rules and guides to online activities. 63 Fed. Reg. 24998 (May 6, 1998). After reviewing the comments, the Commission held a public workshop on May 14, 1999, to explore the issues further. See 64 Fed. Reg. 14156 (Mar. 24, 1999) (announcing the workshop). Twenty-five groups, including businesses, trade associations and consumer organizations, participated in the workshop discussion. The focus of the workshop was an evaluation of how disclosures required by FTC rules and guides can be displayed clearly and conspicuously in Internet advertisements. A shorter session examined how terms such as "written," "writing" and "printed" are used in FTC rules and guides and should be interpreted in light of the use of electronic media. Additional written comments were submitted after the workshop. The public comments and the workshop transcript are available at https://www.ftc.gov/bcp/rulemaking/elecmedia/index.htm or from the FTC’s Consumer Response Center, 600 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Room 130, Washington, DC 20580.

2  With the rules and guides, the content of the disclosure generally is prescribed. Thus, it was unnecessary to examine broader issues that might arise in examining advertising in general—for example, whether a disclosure is even necessary or what it should say.

3  This working paper, however, does not address disclosures required by regulations issued by the Federal Reserve Board: Regulation B, 12 C.F.R. Part 202; Regulation E, 12 C.F.R. Part 205; Regulation M, 12 C.F.R. Part 213; Regulation Z, 12 C.F.R. Part 226. This paper also does not address which country’s laws govern a particular transaction or sale. The FTC and other countries and organizations have been evaluating these issues and will continue to work cooperatively in this area. See https://www.ftc.gov/bcp/icpw/index.htm for more information about international issues.

4  The Commission’s authority covers virtually every sector of the economy, except for certain excluded industries, such as the business of insurance and banks.

5  The Commission issues rules pursuant to Section 5 of the FTC Act when it has reason to believe that certain unfair or deceptive acts or practices are prevalent in an industry. 15 U.S.C. § 57a(a)(1)(B). The Commission may seek civil penalties from any person or company that violates a rule "with actual knowledge or knowledge fairly implied on the basis of objective circumstances that such act is unfair or deceptive and is prohibited by such rule." 15 U.S.C. § 45(m)(1)(A). The Commission also may seek redress for consumers. 15 U.S.C. § 57b(a)(1). In addition, the Commission promulgates rules pursuant to specific statutes, which are designed to further particular policy goals. The remedies available to enforce these rules vary.

6  Guides are "administrative interpretations of the laws administered by the Commission." 16 C.F.R. § 1.5. Although the guides do not have the force and effect of law, the Commission may bring an enforcement action if a person or company fails to comply with a guide and engages in an unfair or deceptive practice in violation of the FTC Act.

7  The following rules and guides are included in this category: Guides for the Nursery Industry (16 C.F.R. Part 18); Guides for the Rebuilt, Reconditioned and Other Used Automobile Parts Industry (16 C.F.R. Part 20); Guides for the Jewelry, Precious Metals, and Pewter Industries (16 C.F.R. Part 23); Guides for Select Leather and Imitation Leather Products (16 C.F.R. Part 24); Tire Advertising and Labeling Guides (16 C.F.R. Part 228); Guides Against Deceptive Pricing (16 C.F.R. Part 233); Guides Against Bait Advertising (16 C.F.R. Part 238); Guides for the Advertising of Warranties and Guarantees (16 C.F.R. Part 239); Guides for the Household Furniture Industry (16 C.F.R. Part 250); Guide Concerning Use of the Word "Free" and Similar Representations (16 C.F.R. Part 251); Guides for Private Vocational and Distance Education Schools (16 C.F.R. Part 254); Guides Concerning Use of Endorsements and Testimonials in Advertising (16 C.F.R. Part 255); Guides Concerning Fuel Economy Advertising for New Automobiles (16 C.F.R. Part 259); Guides for the Use of Environmental Marketing Claims (16 C.F.R. Part 260); Rules and Regulations Under the Wool Products Labeling Act of 1939 (16 C.F.R. Part 300); Rules and Regulations Under Fur Products Labeling Act (16 C.F.R. Part 301); Rules and Regulations Under the Textile Fiber Products Identification Act (16 C.F.R. Part 303); Rule Concerning Disclosures Regarding Energy Consumption and Water Use of Certain Home Appliances and Other Products Required Under the Energy Policy and Conservation Act ("Appliance Labeling Rule") (16 C.F.R. Part 305); Rule Concerning Automotive Fuel Ratings, Certification and Posting (16 C.F.R. Part 306); Labeling Requirements for Alternative Fuels and Alternative Fueled Vehicles (16 C.F.R. Part 309); Telemarketing Sales Rule (16 C.F.R. Part 310); Deceptive Advertising as to Sizes of Viewable Pictures Shown by Television Receiving Sets (16 C.F.R. Part 410); Retail Food Store Advertising and Marketing Practices (16 C.F.R. Part 424); Use of Prenotification Negative Option Plans (16 C.F.R. Part 425); Power Output Claims for Amplifiers Utilized in Home Entertainment Products (16 C.F.R. Part 432); Preservation of Consumers’ Claims and Defenses (16 C.F.R. Part 433); Mail or Telephone Order Merchandise Rule (16 C.F.R. Part 435); Credit Practices Rule (16 C.F.R. Part 444); Used Motor Vehicle Trade Regulation Rule (16 C.F.R. Part 455); Labeling and Advertising of Home Insulation (16 C.F.R. Part 460); Interpretations of Magnuson-Moss Warranty Act (16 C.F.R. Part 700); Disclosure of Written Consumer Product Warranty Terms and Conditions (16 C.F.R. Part 701); Pre-Sale Availability of Written Warranty Terms (16 C.F.R. Part 702); Informal Dispute Settlement Procedures (16 C.F.R. Part 703).

8  A rule or guide applies to online activities if its scope is not limited by how claims are communicated to consumers, how advertising is disseminated, or where commercial activities occur. As needed, the Commission will amend or clarify the scope of any particular rule or guide in more detail during its regularly scheduled review. The Commission has a program in place to periodically review its rules and guides to evaluate their continued need and to make any necessary changes.

9  16 C.F.R. § 435.2(a).

10  16 C.F.R. § 255(b).

11  As explained in the FTC’s Deception Policy Statement, an ad is deceptive if it contains a statement—or omits information—that is likely to mislead consumers acting reasonably under the circumstances and is "material" or important to a consumer’s decision to buy or use the product. See FTC Policy Statement on Deception, appended to Cliffdale Associates, Inc., 103 F.T.C. at 174 ("Deception Policy Statement"). A statement also may be deceptive if the advertiser does not have a reasonable basis to support the claim. Advertising Substantiation Statement. See FTC Policy Statement on Advertising Substantiation, appended to Thompson Medical Co., 104 F.T.C. 648, 839 (1984), aff’d, 791 F.2d 189 (D.C. Cir. 1986), cert. denied, 479 U.S. 1086 (1987).

12  Before disseminating an ad, advertisers must have reasonable support for all express and implied objective claims that the ad conveys to consumers. When an ad lends itself to more than one reasonable interpretation, there must be substantiation for each interpretation. The type of evidence needed to substantiate a claim may depend on the product, the claims, and what experts believe is necessary. If an ad specifies a certain level of support for a claim—"tests show x"—the advertiser must have at least that level of support.

13  According to the FTC Act, 15 U.S.C. § 45(n) and the FTC’s Unfairness Policy Statement, an advertisement or business practice is unfair if it causes or is likely to cause substantial consumer injury that consumers could not reasonably avoid and that is not outweighed by the benefit to consumers or competition. See FTC Policy Statement on Unfairness, appended to International Harvester Co., 104 F.T.C. 949, 1070 (1984).

14  Copy tests or other evidence of how consumers actually interpret an ad can be valuable. In many cases, however, the implications of the ad are clear enough to determine the existence of the claim by examining the ad alone, without extrinsic evidence.

15  For example, if an endorsement is not representative of the performance that consumers can generally expect to achieve with a product, advertisers must disclose this fact so that consumers are not misled. Guides Concerning the Use of Endorsements and Testimonials in Advertising, 16 C.F.R. § 255.2.

16  For example, any solicitation for the purchase of consumer products with a warranty must disclose the text of the warranty offer or how consumers can obtain it for free. Pre-Sale Availability of Written Warranty Terms, 16 C.F.R. § 702.3.

17  For example, the required energy efficiency disclosures in the Appliance Labeling Rule, 16 C.F.R. § 305.4, further the public policy goal of promoting energy conservation.

18  Some rules and guides, as well as some FTC cases, use the phrase "clearly and prominently" instead of "clearly and conspicuously." These two phrases are synonymous.

19  Deception Policy Statement at 175-76.

20  Deception Policy Statement at 178.

21  Deception Policy Statement at 180-81.

22  Web pages can vary in length, and one Web page may be the equivalent of many printed pages.

23  In some cases, the details about the additional fees might be too complex to describe adjacent to the price claim and may be provided by using a hyperlink. But, a clear statement about the existence and nature of the extra fees should appear adjacent to the price. Of course, all cost information should be presented to consumers at the time of purchase. Consumers should understand the exact amount they will be charged and should not have to learn this information by clicking on hyperlinks.

24  Asterisks and other symbols also are used in different ways on Web pages, which may confuse consumers as to where the related disclosure may be found. Some online asterisks and symbols are hyperlinks that click-through to a separate page and others are static, referring to a disclosure at the bottom of the page.

25  This approach is consistent with Commission policy for disclosures in other media. For example, the Commission has required fuller disclosures in print ads and a shorter disclosure in a short television ad with a referral to another location for more complete information. See, e.g., Nutri/System, Inc., 116 F.T.C. 1408 (1993) (consent order requiring a shorter disclosure for 15 second television ads).

26  Web sites may display differently depending on the browser, computer screen, or other information appliance used. Advertisers may be working with a default view, but also evaluating different display options so that the site will be attractive and accessible to most consumers. Considering different display options also may be necessary to ensure that qualifying information is displayed clearly and conspicuously. Evaluating the prominence of the disclosure in relation to the rest of the ad helps ensure that consumers are able to view the disclosure.

27  See, e.g., Kent & Spiegel Direct, Inc., 124 F.T.C. 300 (1997); Synchronal Corp., 116 F.T.C. 1189 (1993) (consent orders requiring disclosures to be repeated during television infomercials).

28  For example, the Commission specifically amended the Textile Rules’ requirement to disclose textile origin in "print" catalogs to clarify that these disclosures must be made in online catalogs as well. See 63 Fed. Reg. 7507 (Feb. 13, 1998) or https://www.ftc.gov/os/1998/9802/textile.htm for a discussion of the amendments to the Rules and Regulations Under the Textile Fiber Products Identification Act, 16 C.F.R. Part 303.

29  16 C.F.R. § 305.1(d).

30  16 C.F.R. §§ 305.2(m), 305.14.

31  Mail or Telephone Order Merchandise Rule, 16 C.F.R. § 435.1(b).

32  Rule Concerning Use of Prenotification Negative Option Plans, 16 C.F.R. § 425(a)(2).

33  Disclosure of Written Consumer Product Warranty Terms and Conditions, 16 C.F.R. § 701.3, and Pre-Sale Availability of Written Warranty Terms, 16 C.F.R. § 702.3. According to the Rule Regarding Pre-Sale Availability of Written Warranty Terms, an alternative to making the warranty terms available prior to purchase is for sellers to provide information about how consumers may obtain the written warranty for free by mail. 16 C.F.R. § 702.3(c)(2).

34  16 C.F.R. § 310.6. The Telemarketing Sales Rule prohibits deceptive and abusive telemarketing practices. Among other things, it requires that certain information be disclosed in telemarketing calls. The scope of the Rule does not extend to transactions that take place entirely online. The sales transaction must involve a traditional voice telephone call. See 60 Fed. Reg. 30,406, 30,411 (June 8, 1995). In addition, in most situations, the Rule does not apply if a consumer calls a business in response to an advertisement. However, if a consumer calls a business in response to a "direct mail" advertisement, that call is subject to the Rule.

35  The telephone call may be exempt from the Rule’s coverage if the direct mail piece contains certain disclosures, such as the total cost to purchase the goods or services.

36  Whether certain types of online ads, such as targeted banner ads or personalized solicitations on Web sites, constitute direct mail should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.

37  A small number of telemarketing transactions relating to specific types of goods or services are covered by the Telemarketing Sales Rule, regardless of the advertising method or manner in which the telemarketing calls were initiated. For example, credit repair services and advance fee loan services sold through telemarketing are covered by the Telemarketing Sales Rule, regardless of whether the consumer called in response to a direct mail piece, television advertisement, or Web site. 16 C.F.R. § 310.6(e) and (f).